Quality Child Care Matters

Mother’s have quite the dilemma when deciding when and if to return to work after giving birth to a child. Sometimes the choice is made for them due to financial reasons and sometimes they have the luxury of deciding on which is the best scenario for themselves and their families. In trying to make this decision, mothers may wonder if and how their absence and the choice of child care will affect their child. In all the years I have spend in early childhood education and child care, I think I have probably seen all of the â€Å"scenarios† and know that there is no one right answer. Each situation is different and there are so many variables, even within each variable, but the evidence is so vast that there are certainly findings to please almost everyone (Belsky, 2009, p. 1). In my research on this delicate topic, I have come to the conclusion that the only two factors that can predict positive outcomes for children’s later development is the combination of child care quality and healthy family attachments and support. As you will see, there are so many variables and each plays into the other, but safe and secure relationships at home and in child care are the winning factors in this decades long debate. There are two well-known pieces of data that have been gathered which researchers have utilized throughout the years to study the effects of maternal employment on later development. The first was conducted by the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79) and began in 1979. The NLSY79 is a nationally representative sample of 12, 686 young men and women who were 12-22 years old when they were first surveyed in 1979. These individuals were interviewed annually through 1994 and are currently interviewed on a biennial basis† (US Dept. f Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, http://www. bls. gov/nls/y79summary. htm, para. 1). In 1986, the NLSY79 was used as â€Å"a separate survey of all children born to NLSY79 female respondents† to conduct more child-specific information† (US Dept. of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, http://www. bls. gov/nls/nlsy79ch. htm, para. 8). Researchers such as Jay Belsky (1988) first utilized the NLSY79 data to study the effects of early and extensive maternal employment. Belsky, etc al. oncluded â€Å"that children who had initiated care for 30 or more hours per week in their first year and whose care at this level continued through their preschool years evinced poorer academic and social functioning than did children whose full-time care began sometime later – and that this was true whether one looked at teacher reports, parent reports, peer reports, or the children’s own self-reports† (Belsky & Eggebeen, 1991, p. 1084). There were some problems with this early research and the data that was used to interpret outcomes. One of the problems was that the two groups studied (maternal employment and non-maternal employment) were too different in so many ways. â€Å"One of the most difficult methodological issues in studying this causal process is the fact that there are substantial differences between women who work soon after their child is born and women who do not† (Hill, Waldfogel, Brooks-Gunn, & Wen-Jui, 2005, p. 834). Another problem with this wave of research was that â€Å"the effects of different features of the child-care experience, particularly the quality of the care, the amount or quality of care, and the type of care† (Belsky, Vandell, Burchinal, et al. 2007, p. 682) were not taken into account at the same time. Prior research â€Å"examined one or another feature of the child-care experience, but never all three† (Belsky, Vandell, Burchinal, et al. , 2007, p. 682). The second wave of research was based on more specific data â€Å"to examine the concurrent, long-term , and cumulative influences of variations in early child care experiences on the cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical development of infants and toddlers† (Friedman, NICHD, 1992, p. 1. . These researchers were interested not only in the effects of child-care, but the â€Å"endurance of effects† (Belsky, Vandell, & Burchinal, 2007, p. 682). They continued to follow up with children from 4 ? – 11 years of age. This goal of this study was â€Å"accomplished through the implementation of a study design that takes into account the complex concurrent, long-term and cumulative interactions among characteristics of the family and home, of the child care environments, and of the child† (Friedman, 1992, p. 6). Researchers such as Jennifer Hill and Jane Waldfogel (2005) utilized the NICHD data to determine the effects of maternal employment with easier access to more varied situations. They broke up their results into four categories – Comparisons Between Worked After First Year and Never Worked, Comparisons Between Worked Part Time in the First Year and Did Not Work Until After the First Year, Comparisons Between Worked Full Time in the First Year Versus Did Not Work Until After the First Year, and Comparisons Between Worked Full Time in the First Year Versus Worked Part Time in the First Year (pp. 839-842). These researchers concluded that â€Å"negative effects of maternal employment on children’s cognitive outcomes were found in our analyses primarily for children whose mothers were employed full time in the first year postbirth as compared with children whose mothers postponed work until after their child’s first year of life and also as compared with mothers who worked part time in the first year. Negative effects in terms of increased externalizing behavioral problems were evident in each of these comparisons involving mothers who worked full time in the first year† (Hill, Waldfogel, Brooks-Gunn, and Hann, 2005, p. 44). Although the use of the NICHD study did allow researchers to analyze the data utilizing more correlations between diverse situations, there is even later research that delves even deeper into the mixed bag of maternal work situations, family dynamics, home-life, child-care situations, etc. Heather Joshi, et al. , extended the studies even furthe r by including events such as, â€Å"additional information concerning the types of jobs that they return to: are these jobs routinized or do they provide a degree of autonomy† (2008, p. ). Also included in these studies is the â€Å"interactions between our maternal employment measures and additional maternal characteristics and behaviors† and the â€Å"differences by gender† (Joshi, Cooksey, Verropoulou, Menaghan, & Tzavidis, 2008, p. 2). The results of these more recent studies lend â€Å"only limited support to negative effect of mother’s employment per se during infancy and the pre-school years on later child well-being† (Joshi, Cooksey, Verropoulou, Menaghan, & Tzavidis, 2008, p. ). The extent and expansion of variables for research surrounding maternal employment continues to grow. Joshi, et al. , are currently working on expanding on their set of â€Å"both maternal employment and maternal/family background variables† Joshi, Cooksey, Verropoulou, Menaghan, & Tzavidis, 2008, p. 3) which should be completed sometime in 2009 (the results for which I have not yet been able to locate). There are four questions that have motivated current research on this topic. They have been identified as: Does extensive child care in the first year of life disrupt attachment between mother and child, what is the influence of varying types of in child care quality on children’s development, do long hours spent in child-care add to later behavior problems, and what are the effects of the types of child-care that are available? Mother-Child Attachment The earliest studies surrounding maternal employment and attachment came up with many mixed results which is one of the main reasons that the NICHD decided to begin their own study (1986). Assessment of the mother-child attachment relationship is made using various measures, including the Strange Situation† (Friedman, NICHD, 1992, p. 12). The Strange Situation was a psychological study designed by Mary D. Ainsworth which consisted â€Å"of eight episodes presented in a standardized order for all subjects† (1978, pp. 32-33) which tested the reactions of children, ages 12 – 18 months, w hilst in the presence of mother only, mother-stranger, stranger only, and alone (including the return of mother during each separation from her). According to the NICHD, â€Å"there were no significant main effects of child-care experience (quality, amount, age of entry, stability, or type of care) on attachment security or avoidance† and there were â€Å"significant main effects of maternal sensitivity and responsiveness† (NICHD, 1997, https://secc. rti. org/abstracts. cfm? abstract=9). These negative affects in attachment were also amplified when â€Å"combined with poor quality child care, more than minimal amounts of child care, or more than one care arrangement† (NICHD, 1997, https://secc. ti. org/abstracts. cfm? abstract=9). Child Care Quality The quality of the child-care of a child proves to be one of the most important factors when addressing the impact of child-care on child development. When assessing the impact of child-care quality, it is important to look at child-staff ratio, group size, and caregiver education and/or training. The quality of the interactions between caregivers and children, between peers, as well as how caregivers facilitate these interactions is also a tremendous indicator of child-care quality. According to the NICHD, children who experience high-quality child-care have higher scores on achievement and language tests, show fewer behavioral issues and better social skills. Programs like the federally funded Head Start can also function as an intervention for children from at-risk families/situations. In 2007, Belsky conducted a study based on the NICHD findings and concluded â€Å"that quality and type of care remained associated with children’s vocabulary and problem behavior† (2007, p. 297). In a 2002 study (also based on NICHD), researchers Hill, Waldfogel, & Brooks-Gunn concluded that children who participated in no non-maternal care and home-based, non-maternal care â€Å"would have gained the most from high quality center-based care and moreover, would have more consistently remained the bulk of these benefits overtime† (2002, p. 1). Hours Spent in Child Care Although the findings seem to be mixed, there is some evidence that the amount of hours spent in child care may be a cause for some behavior problems, namely aggressive behavior. The NICHD researchers (Belsky, Hill), did conclude that â€Å"children with more experience in child-care centers were rated by their teachers as showing somewhat more disruptive behavior in sixth grade† (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, n. d. , p. 2), but more recent research (Joshi, Cooksey, et al. ) explored â€Å"various interactions between our maternal employment measures and additional maternal characteristics and behaviors† (2008, p. 2) to be added risk factors for behavioral issues. Type of Child Care There are also mixed findings in the effects of the type of child care situation a young child experiences. I feel rather strongly that a primary caregiver relationship is best for the young infants entering child care (whether it be in a more formal, group care setting or a private situation). Unfortunately most group child care programs do not offer a primary caregiver model which definitely contributes to the disorganization and unpredictability of the care that a child receives. With a primary care model, caregivers can â€Å"promote a stronger attachment than might happen if attachment were left to chance or if all the caregivers relate to the whole group without differentiation† (Gonzalez-Mena, 2007, p. 49). Penelope Leach, et al. also state that â€Å"children who experience greater caregiver stability while attending early years settings have been found to have more secure relationships with their caregivers and to show higher degrees of social competence† (2008, p. 180). When child care provider implement practices that support child development (whether it be group care of private care), the results are positive. What it all seems to come down to is that the effects of maternal employment are complex and vary from family to family, child care situation to child care situation, and parental style/characteristics. The NICHD researchers clearly suggest that â€Å"we seek to move beyond the determination of possible risks that may be presented by child care as a unitary category. Rather, we want to find out how the effects of non-maternal care vary as a function of different variables such as child care quality, the extent of its use, characteristics of the children and of their family and home† (Friedman, NICHD, 1992, p. 10). These factors combined with family income/education and child gender make for a very complicated study. One factor seems to influence the other and there are so many variables. The one thing that does stand out in all of the research is that developmental outcomes are dependent upon the quality of child care and family dynamics. When a child is feeling supported by both his/her parents and the people that care for him/her, the outcomes are favorable. Quality child care programs support cognitive, physical, social-emotional development, but unfortunately so many families do not have access to these programs due to their lack of availability and the high cost of most quality programs. A proof in point is that I am currently a private child care provider and due to my expertise, I am able to charge higher rates than others in my field, but only families that can afford these rates are able to hire me. The sad thing is that â€Å"a national study of 100 child care centers found that 92% of them provided inadequate care to infants† and â€Å"it was reported that two in five centers were rated less than minimal† (FSU Center for Prevention & Early Intervention Policy, http://www. peip. fsu. edu/resourceFiles/resourceFile_81. pdf). Keep in mind that these figures are based on child care centers with varied tuition rates in various parts of the county. Those numbers are just staggering and unacceptable, but make perfect sense when you take into account that child care providers are usually not professionally trained or minimally trained and receive very low wages. Teacher training and regulations on child care centers are getting stricter which is a good si gn. More and more mothers are returning to work and it is only cost effective that the investments we make in early child care practices will result in better adjusted and academically successful children in the years to come. References Ainsworth, M. (1978). Patterns of attachment: a psychological study of the strange situation Philadelphia: Laurence Earlbaum Associates, Inc. Belsky, J. & Eggebeen, D. (1991, January 1). Early and extensive maternal employment and young children’s socioemotional development: children of the national longitudinal survey of youth. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53(4), 1083-98. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ440714). Retrieved August 15, 2009 from ERIC database. Belsky, J. , Vandell, D. , Burchinal, M. , Clark-Stewart, K. , McCartney, K. , & Owen, M. (2007, March 1). Are there long-term effects of early child care?. Child Development, 78(2), 681-701, (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ756658). Retrieved August 15 From ERIC database. Belsky, J. (2009, March). Effects of child care on development. Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues. Birkbeck University of London. Gonzalez-Mena, J. Infants, toddlers, and caregivers. Boston: McGraw-Hill. FSU Center for Prevention & Early Intervention Policy. (n. d. ). Research on quality child care For infants and toddlers. Retrieved August 25, 2009 from https://www. cpeip. fsu. edu. Hill, J. , Waldfogel, J. , & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2002, September 1). Different effects of high quality Care. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 21(4), 601-627. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ772831). Retrieved August 15, 2009 from ERIC database. Hill, J. , Waldfogel, J. , Brooks-Gunn, J. , & Han, W. (2005, November 1). Maternal employment and child development: a fresh look using newer methods. Developmental Psychology, 41(6), 833-850. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ733669). Retrieved August 25, 2009. Joshi, H. , University of London, Cooksey, E. , The Ohio State University, Verropoulou, G. , University of Piraeus, Menaghan, E, The Ohio State University, & Tzavidis, N. , University of Manchester. (2008). Combining childrearing with work: do maternal employment experiences compromise child development. Retrieved August 12, 2009 from http://iussp2009. princeton. edu/download. aspx? submissionId=92322. Leach, P. Barnes, J. , Malmberg, L. , Sylva, K. , & Stein, A. (2008, February 1). The quality of different types of child care at 10 and 18 months: a comparison between types and factors related to quality. Early Child Development and Care, 178(2), 177-209. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ782856). Retrieved August 15, 2009 from ERIC database. Motherhood-extent and effects of maternal employment. (n. d. ). Retrieved August 26, 2009 from http://family. jrank. org/pages/1187/Motherhood-Extent-Effects-Maternal- Employment. html National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. Scientific briefs: how early child care affects later development. (2007). Retrieved August 12, 2009 from http://www. developingchild. net. The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care: A comprehensive Longitudinal Study of Young Children’s Lives. (1992, June 1). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED353087). Retrieved August 15, 2009 from ERIC database. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (1987). The effects of infant child care on infant- Mother attachment security: results of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. Child Development, 68.

Industrial and Personnel Psychology Essay

1. Personal biographical characteristics of note are factors that describe an individual. Factors such as age, gender, marital status and tenure. These characteristics have an impact on the attitudes that an individual may have towards work and dependent variable such as productivity, absenteeism, and turnover and job satisfaction. The relationship between age and job performance is of great importance because it is believed that job performance decreases as age increases. Though not all employers have perceptions of older employees. From a positive perspective it is noted that older employees have more experience, judgment, ethics and commitment. In addition, with older employees, labour turnover is reduced. Because of their longer tenure within the organization they tend to enjoy increased wages, pension and many other benefits and are therefore less likely to leave. With regards to absenteeism and older employees, the evidence is however mixed. Although there are decreases in avoidable absenteeism rates compared to younger employees, there is an increase in unavoidable rates due to poor health due to age, and longer recovery periods. However from a negative point it is noted that older employees lack flexibility, there is a decrease in their productivity due to decreased speed, agility, strength and co-ordination and resistance to change in a changing environment. Consequently, organizations are reluctant to hire older employees. In addition, they tend to retrench them first when it comes to downsizing. Gender in job performance has no evidence that it affects job satisfaction. However there is a difference in work schedules because women mostly prefer part time work or work flexibility due to family responsibilities. With regards to absenteeism women usually have a higher rate of absenteeism than men as women traditionally care for the family. For example when children are sick, it is the mothers who tend to take off work in order to take care of such sick children. Married employees generally have a decrease in absenteeism, turnover and an increase in job satisfaction. This may be due to increased responsibilities. With regards to tenure, there is a positive relationship between seniority and job performance and a negative relationship between tenure and absenteeism. That is an increase in tenure and seniority tends to lead to better performance and an increase in tenure to lead to decrease in turnover. People are organization’s most valuable and expensive resource, but they are the most difficult element of an organization to manage. Individuals are almost infinitely different, they act differently in different circumstances and are, in many ways, entirely unpredictable. This means that, unlike machines, they are not interchangeable or able to be easily designed to do the jobs required of them. In terms of the organization, what we are interested in is the way in which people behave at work-that they perform effectively in pursuit of the organisation’s goals. The starting point for this is an understanding of what makes people behave in the way they do. Although psychologists do not agree on a single definition of personality, there is some consensus that it is concerned with characteristics patterns of behavior and modes of thinking that determine a person’s adjustment to the environment (Hilgard et al 1979:108). Two features of the above definition are noteworthy. In the first place, the word â€Å"characteristic† suggests a degree of performance in personality. In the second place, â€Å"environment† suggests that personality is displayed in a social and physical context. Beyond this consensus, there is a great deal disagreement over the development, structure and dynamics of personality. The correct interpretation and use of the results of personality measures and tests depends a great deal on the theory or approach on which the instruments are based. Without this knowledge, the description of personality may well be miused. Personality can therefore be referred to a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system. It looks at the whole person rather than at the sum of the individual parts. It is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his or her unique adjustments to his or her environment. An altogether different approach to personality concentrates on identifying and classifying those features that individuals may share. The different categories or types serve to emphasise the similarities within each group and the differences between the groups. These attempts to classify personality features are often referred to as the type or trait approach. There are a number of personality determinants, namely, Heredity, the Environment, or the Situation. Heredity is the process of transmitting biological traits from parent to offspring through genes, the basic units of heredity. Heredity also refers to the inherited characteristics of an individual, including traits such as height, eye color, and blood type. Heredity accounts for why offspring look like their parents: when two dogs mate, for example, they have puppies, not kittens. If the parents are both Chihuahuas, the puppies will also be Chihuahuas, not great Danes or Labrador retrievers. The puppies may be a little taller or shorter, a little lighter or a lot heavier than their parents are. Their faces may look a little different, or they may have different talents and temperaments. In all the important characteristics, however—the number of limbs, arrangement of organs, general size, fur type—they will share the traits of their parents. The principles of heredity hold true not only for a puppy but also for a virus, a roundworm, a pansy, or a human. Genetics is the study of how heredity works and, in particular, of genes. A gene is a section of a long deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule, and it carries information for the construction of a protein or part of a protein. Through the diversity of proteins they code for, genes influence or determine such traits as eye color, the ability of a bacterium to eat a certain sugar, or the number of peas in a pod. A virus has as few as a dozen genes. A simple roundworm has 5000 to 8000 genes, while a corn plant has 60,000. The construction of a human requires an estimated 50,000 genes. Personality characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity however, as otherwise they would remain the same throughout life despite the experiences we have. Environment is referred to all of the external factors affecting an organism. These factors may be other living organisms (biotic factors) or nonliving variables (abiotic factors), such as temperature, rainfall, day length, wind, and ocean currents. The interactions of organisms with biotic and abiotic factors form an ecosystem. Even minute changes in any one factor in an ecosystem can influence whether or not a particular plant or animal species will be successful in its environment. Organisms and their environment constantly interact, and both are changed by this interaction. Like all other living creatures, humans have clearly changed their environment, but they have done so generally on a grander scale than have all other species. Some of these human-induced changes—such as the destruction of the world’s tropical rain forests to create farms or grazing land for cattle—have led to altered climate patterns. In turn, altered climate patterns have changed the way animals and plants are distributed in different ecosystems. Scientists study the long-term consequences of human actions on the environment, while environmentalists—professionals in various fields, as well as concerned citizens—advocate ways to lessen the impact of human activity on the natural world. Situation is one of the determinants of personality which influences the effect of heredity and environment on personality. Personality, which is generally stable, often changes in different situations.  For example, we may behave very differently at a party with our friends as opposed to how we would do at a social gathering of work colleagues and our managers. 2. Attitude refers to an opinion or general feeling about something. Attitudes are, essentially feelings towards people or things. How people feel, what they believe, what they intend to do, and whether and how they do it may all be connected, and may all be related to the process of perception. To try to reduce the confusion in this area over the use of words and concepts such as â€Å"feelings† and â€Å"beliefs†, Fishbein (19670 put forward the following hierarchical model. Beliefs What we think about people, things, relationships etc â€Å"My work provides no challenge† Attitudes Affective responses to those people, things, relationships etc. â€Å"I see work only as a means to getting money† Intentions Congnitive states â€Å"I will look for my challenge in my leisure time† Behavior or Action Observable events â€Å"I take up mountaineering† Attitudes are learned. They derive from our personal reaction to information and events, which manifest themselves as beliefs and feelings about a particular subject. We learn many of our attitudes when we are very young. They are conditioned by those around us and the conditions or situations in which we find ourselves. Some-particularly feelings-are so strong that they stay with stay with us and affect us for the rest of our lives. The range of influences is complex, but it includes the following: * The groups to which we belong-most notably, in early life, the family, but also friendship groups, work groups * Education * Life experiences- particularly the most profound personal ones such as bereavement, etc. but also those experiences which we observe e. g on Tv, or read about. We are aware, too, that our attitudes change over time as a result of the influence of the above factors. For example, it is very often the case that young people have more liberal attitudes than older people, but as they enter work and acquire family and financial commitments and responsibilities they tend to become more â€Å"conservative†. One of the key elemen ts of management in organizations is how to modify or change people’s behaviour. This is central to such features as motivation, securing effective performance, introducing change, etc. whilst as noted above, attitudes do not necessarily condition behaviour, and they are a significant determinant. In organizations, managers use attitude survey to measure and thereby predict behaviour. Managers use information gathered in attitude surveys to guide them in decisions relative to employees. Attitude surveys elicit responses from employees through questionnaires about how they feel about their jobs, work- groups, supervisors and or the organization. Attitude surveys provide managers with valuable feedback on how workers perceive working conditions, and alert them to problems or employee intentions early so that action can be taken in time. Increasingly, attitudinal surveys are being used within organizations to find out about the potential reactions of staff to particular courses of action (for example, organizational change) or to form judgments about their suitability for particular posts (in a similar way to how personality tests are used). Operational methods for attitude surveys generally seek to measure fire components for each belief. Thus, attitudes to work could be measured as follows: * Strength of feeling about the job itself. The strength with which various attitudes are held about different aspects of the job which are listed, measured on perhaps a seven point scale, from â€Å"agree totally† through neutral to â€Å"disagree totally†. * Value of job to self. Evaluating various aspects of the job, again, but in relation to its meaning to the individual. * Social factors. Attitudes and behaviour do not depend on inner perceptions alone, but also upon surrounding social pressures-the person’s perceptions of what others think he/she should do. The social factors must be investigated in order to understand all the factors determining behaviour. * Overall attitude An overall assessment of the respondent’s attitudes to the contex of the job and to work itself, for example, the value and meaning it has in his/ her life. This is a useful measure as it allows more generalized attitudes to the job to be explored. * Intended behaviour Potential reactions to different scenarios about the job or its context. Although hypothetical, this prediction makes an interesting correlation with actual behaviour. Surveys must have a very clear specification of what they are seeking to measure. Just as with personality tests, there is the ever present danger that the way in which questions are phrased, or the underlying assumptions made, will influence the outcome. Job satisfaction and its opposite, job dissatisfaction, refer to the attitudes and feelings job holders have towards their work. Morale can be viewed as a state of mind dependent on the dependent on the degree of job satisfaction experienced by an individual or group. There is general agreement that job dissatisfaction can have harmful effects on both job holders and the organization. Research has associated job dissatisfaction with all the indicators of low morale-high labour turnover, skills wastage, absenteeism, high accident rates, poor timekeeping and a lack of commitment to quality. An individual with low job satisfaction may suffer frustration and stress. Although stress may arise from many quarters, it is the inability to deal with and manage stress that afflicts the individual who suffers job dissatisfaction. Job satisfaction is determined by a number of factors namely, mentally challenging work, equitable rewards, supportive working conditions, and supportive colleagues. Research has shown that employees prefer jobs that give them opportunities to use their abilities and skills. Characteristics such as freedom, feedback and a variety of tasks make work mentally challenging and allow employees to feel pleasure and satisfaction. On other hand, jobs that are not mentally challenging create boredom, frustration and feelings of failure. Employees want rewards (e. g. pay, promotions) that they perceive as just and in line with their expectations. Satisfaction will occur if pay is seen as based on job demands, skill and community standards. It is not the actual amount of pay that counts, but rather the perception of fairness. Individuals that also perceive promotional decisions as fair will be job satisfied. Employees are concerned with working conditions that are comfortable and that enable one to do an optimal job. Environmental factors such as temperature, light, noise should not be too extreme. Factors such as proximity to home, cleanliness, technology and adequate tools, help increase job satisfaction. As well as tangible achievements, employees also work for social interaction. Therefore having friendly and supportive co-workers and superiors also lead to increased job satisfaction. On many occasions managers’ interest in job satisfaction centers on its effect on employee performance. Therefore studies have been made to identify the relationships between satisfaction and performance. Organized studies in particular have focused on the effect of satisfaction on the dependent variables such as Productivity, Absenteeism and Turnover. There is no real proof that satisfaction leads to productivity. The saying â€Å"a happy worker is a productive worker† is wishful thinking. Often productivity leads to satisfaction and not the other way around. Productivity leads to increase in rewards, recognition, which in turn increases satisfaction. Satisfaction may lead to productivity on an organization level rather than on an individual level. Dissatisfied workers are more likely to be absent. This relationship can be affected however by sick leave benefits which might encourage workers to be absent. While satisfied employees are less likely to leave work. This can however be affected by, labour market conditions, expectations about alternative job offers and length of tenure. Level of satisfaction is less important in predicting turnover for superior employees as more effort is made to keep these individuals. Satisfaction-turnover relationship is also affected by the individuals disposition towards life. If two people are dissatisfied the positive one is more likely to leave.

Gimi coefficient Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Gimi coefficient - Essay Example According to the ranges of gini coefficient, the developing or poor countries, those countries who have per captia GDP low, comes in the range from 0.25 to 0.71. As far as rich countries are concerned they come in the range of under 0.40 (Mandal 126). The Lorenz curve diagrams ratio of area can be used to elaborate the gini coefficient. In Lorenz curve if we say that A symbolizes the area among the line of perfect equality and B symbolizes as the Lorenz’s curve inner area then A/(A+B) is the equation which represents the gini coefficient. Subsequently A+B = 0.5, the gini coefficient, G = 2A = 1-2B. By incorporation the value of B can be found if the Lorenz curve is characterized by the function Y= L(x) and the equation will be, (Catalano and George D. n.p). The usage of gini coefficient measure of inequality leads to many advantages, one of which is that it can be used to compare income distributions crosswise diverse population. Gini coefficient is easily used because of its simplicity rather than other measuring techniques, through gini coefficient we can come to the results of changed distribution of income over the year in a country. It also satisfies great principles of anonymity, scale independence and population independence. As on one hand it has many advantages, on the other side there are many problems faced while using gini coefficient measure of inequality. Gini coefficient, uses income gained from wealth, it measures net income more than net worth, having a possibility of misinterpretation. For example, a low gini coefficient for income is seen in Sweden, but Sweden’s coefficient for wealth is higher. Numerous whiles in gini coefficient, there is no description of the proportions used for measurement. As granularity impacts the measurements of gini coefficient, we find numerous problems while conducting measurements through it. If there is low granularity, that is four 20% quantiles it will lead to a lower gini coefficient, while at t he same time if we take twenty 4% quantiles that is high granularity the results would be higher gini coefficient if we take both of these figures from the similar distribution (Mandal 129). Because it a measure of income dispersion a lot of care have to be taken through the use of gini coefficient as a measure of egalitarianism. For example We will get a result of difference in gini coefficients when we take two different countries having equal egalitarian, but as they both have different policies, gini coefficient will be different. As it measures at a point in time of the greatest problem of gini coefficient is that is errors a lot of energetic information about lifetime income of the individual. In gini coefficient, not only the income but also the individual’s age distribution within population and mobility in income classes are not taken into consideration (Mandal 129). It can be observed that if gini coefficient is showing higher results at one point, but will not gibe same result at different point because gini coefficient does not notice the changes over a period of time. A number of more problems arise when it comes to measurement through gini coefficient; difficulty arises that is when two counties income are associated as both the countries differ in benefits systems, like some countries give benefit in monetary form, while others not in monetary form. Some countries may include benefits some may not, as the

GLOBAL LOGISTICS AND SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT Essay - 1

GLOBAL LOGISTICS AND SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT - Essay Example Therefore, the total cost of the Model needs to be redefined. Carrying cost is constant; the model assumes that carrying costs are constant; however, this might vary depending on the quantity of inventory, economies of scale, increase in storage space, and renting of new warehouse. Independent orders; the increase of orders may increase the cost of saving by reducing the transportation and paperwork. This means that the original EOQ should be modified and developed to deal with the change. In essence, this means that the optimal strategy is computing one product Instantaneous delivery; the model assumes that the orders is delivered instantly; however, this can be modified to include the safe stock. In other words, the model assumes that there was no delay in delivery of stock and the delivered stock is as demanded. The model is based on assumptions hence not accurate; for instance, it assumes that there is a steady demand of the product for immediate restocking. However, the model does not consider variables such as economic fluctuations, as well as, seasonability of some products. Moreover, it assumes that holding charges, ordering costs, and inventory units are constant. This is difficult hence needs a constant monitoring of the inventory levels. In simple terms, the model is limited by the assumptions since the formula does not consider other factors and different products in the same order. Moreover, the model is based on complex mathematical calculations that require an individual to have a good understanding of algebra. This model disadvantages the small entrepreneurs who lack knowledge in calculating such figures. Notably, level production strategy is concerned with producing a plan that helps in maintaining a steady rate of employment and production. Satisfying demand requires that production in a firm be increased and lowered to

Personal statement (Appeal to Dean's office in university) Essay

Personal statement (Appeal to Dean's office in university) - Essay Example I enjoyed the entire year, at the end to be left with a grade of 2AP. This was a very big problem, and I had to leave campus due to my poor performance. Post this, I trained myself and focused on getting into the military service in South Korea. I have been in the military service in South Korea for about two years, after which I readmitted myself into U.C. Davis for the course of Fall 2009. I realised the need for studies and the need to work hard to achieve my academic success. I worked during the year, however due to a medical condition I failed to perform well during this course, as I was constantly disturbed with my medical condition. I suffer from a serious Rhinitis Allergy, and have been diagnosed to be allergic to pollen. I discussed my problem with my parents and I went on back to South Korea and got myself treated with a surgery. The doctors suggest that I have been cured and should not have a problem with my studies during the Winter/Spring 2010. The allergy issue had led me to have a lot of difficulties with my studies and numerous occasions where I have needed medical attention. I have hence not been able to perform on my final exams in EEC180A and the design project EEC140A. I have realised my mistakes and the issues that I have had over the year and understand the need to improve myself. I aim at focusing a lot more on my academics and intend to work towards my academic goals. As mentioned earlier, I have realised my mistakes and my issues that have led me to a condition where I have lost several semesters and time and have not been able to meet my goals. I aim at getting re admitted into the course and complete all my failed courses. I have also come to an understanding with the University about my results and it states that I am required to get a 2.70 GPA for each quarter and / or reduce deficit 1/3. Truly I do not wish to redo the steps that I have completed during Fall 2006 – Spring

Risk management and insurance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Risk management and insurance - Essay Example an insurance agent, one is charged with the responsibility of contacting potential clients, selling different types of insurance, and explaining policies to customers (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, n.d.). While the job can be greatly rewarding, it also has a lot of challenges especially for beginners. The insurance agent may have to walk the streets soliciting customers. The hustle involved in trying to convince potential albeit disinterested customers to buy an insurance policy seems too much for me especially considering that I am not as social as the job may demand. I especially do not like to engage complete strangers walking along the streets. Dealing with people unknown to me is especially stressful since they may hurl obscenities at me without any considerable provocation. In many cases, insurance companies place no requirement for working as an insurance agent. In any case, the insurance agents do not need much to be licensed to start working – passing a state administered licensing exam and taking a short course on insurance suffices to join the trade. While some may prefer to work with college graduates, this requirement is more often than not overlooked in a bid to find the right candidates for the job. In order to work as an agent, one may take economics and business courses (Career Planning.about.com, n.d.). This is not the case when dealing with insurance attorneys. Every organization wants to work with a competent insurance attorney which means that the candidate has to be well trained at college or university level at the least, law being a major component in his/her training. According to the requirements instituted by companies seeking insurance attorneys, it is beyond doubt that the candidate is better placed to earn much more than the insurance agent who may be earning on commission basis. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (n.d.), the median annual wage for agents stands at about 46,770 USD which is significantly lower

Valuation Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Valuation - Research Paper Example In 2011, Coca-Cola was also recognized as the most valuable brand in the world on the basis of Interbrand’s best global brand. Pepsi Corporation Pepsi Corporation is another American based multinational enterprise that operates in the food and beverage industry. Headquarter of Pepsi is in Purchase, New York. The company was formed in 1965 and since that time it has expanded its brands to more than 200 countries. Pepsi is the fifth largest food and beverage company in the world in terms of total revenue however in the North American region it is the largest company. There are more than 285 thousand employees working for Pepsi around the world. INDUSTRY ANALYSIS Food and beverage industry includes food production, distribution, retailing and catering of food and beverages. The total value of this industry in the year 2008 was $5.7 trillion. The growth rate of the industry is expected to increase at a CAGR of 3.5% and it is estimated that the total value of this industry would re ach up to $7 trillion by the end of 2014 (IMAP, 4). As other industry suffered because of financial crisis, food and beverage industry was also one of the victims of recession. ... Cola Corporation is considered to be the seventh most important company in the industry with total revenue of $31.9 billion and net income of $5.8 billion. The industry is lead by Nestle with total revenue of $101.8 billion which has grown by 13.5% in 2010 from 2009. The net profit of Nestle in 2010 was $16.7 billion. Other important players in the market are Bunge ltd, Unilever Archer-Daniels Midland Kraft Foods Tyson Foods Mars Inc Kirin Holdings etc. The future of this industry is bright as the economy is currently recovering from recession and many companies are planning to expand their businesses and acquire firms in the industry. Pepsi acquired a Brazilian based coconut water manufacturer company, Amacoco Nordeste while minority shares of Zico LLC were bought by Coca Cola thus reflecting potential in the industry. S&P 500 and Dow Jones US indexes indicate that the industry would grow with the passage of time as it is reflected in the following graph. (Source: IMAP, 4) FINANCIAL ANALYSIS Financial Highlights of Coca-Cola The revenues of Coca Cola Company have increased in 2010 from 2009 by 13% which has helped the company in improving its profitability considerably by 73%. The revenues of the company although decreased in 2009 in comparison to 2008 but still the company was able to generate 18% more profits than 2008 which reflected that the company was able to cut off several expenses and costs. In addition to this, the earning per share of the company has been increasing with an increasing rate since 2008. Earning per share increased by 18% in 2009 and then it increased by 74% in 2010 reflecting positive future of the company. 2010 Change in % 2009 Change in % 2008 Revenues 35,119 13% 30,990 -3% 31,944 Operating Profit 8,449 3% 8,231 -3% 8,446 Net Profit 11,809

INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL MARKETS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL MARKETS - Essay Example In a simpler terminology it measures the movement in value of any security with the movement in price of the market as a whole. This factor can be important in establishing a portfolio. There are many types of companies, some operate very closely with the financial institutions and markets while others have different operations e.g. manufacturing. All types of companies make investments. These investments play a huge role in assessing the cost of capital(Intermediate Financial Management). The cost of capital is basically the interest they pay on debt and dividends on stocks. This cost basically depends as explained above on the amount of risk associated. If the risk is low, that is beta for a company is low, its cost of capital will automatically be low. Investors will be willing to invest in it for lower returns and banks will lend on a lower rate. (Similar example can be found in intermediate financial management)We can better comprehend this with an example. Let us assume that Company X makes investments in Gold mines. Each Gold mine has equal probability of giving no gold at all and gold worth ten times its extraction cost. The extraction expenditure for a gold mine; irrespective that it results in gold or not, is $100 for small size mine and $1000 for a large size mine. In the first scenario Company X who is short of money and has just $ 1000 to invest, invests in a large gold mine. Now risk of a loss of the $1000 investment is 50%, which is very high. This will associate a high risk with the company’s future cash flows and investors will require a high return; thus driving its cost of capital up. In the second scenario however Company X decides to invest in ten small gold mines. Although the return is the same but the risk has gone down considerably, because most of the risk has been diversified away. (Intermediate Financial

Entrepreneurship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 6

Entrepreneurship - Essay Example In order to create a new business opportunity, entrepreneurs must be able to combine and align the small firm’s available resources, business opportunity that comes along the way, and the people who are working for the business organization towards a specific organizational goal (Wickham, 2004, Ch. 18 – Seeing the Window: Scanning for Opportunity). In other words, each entrepreneur must have their own way of developing a business strategy so as to increase the competitiveness of a small firm. As part of designing a business strategy, the future entrepreneurs are being challenged in terms of effectively distinguish whether or not a small firm’s network is more important than finance and vice versa. For the purpose of this study, the definition of network and finance will first be provided followed by discussing the significance of each factor over the success of a small firm. general, networking is actually referring to the process of developing and using a wide-range of business contacts and establishing a mutually beneficial business relationship with other businessmen as a way to enhance the operation and profitability of a small business organization (Ward, 2009). By improving the business network of a small firm, entrepreneurs can easily increase the profitability and competitiveness of the business organization. Kelley Robertson is the president of Robertson Training Group which aids businesses on how to increaset the company’s sales and profitsbility via busienss networking. According to Robertson (2009), â€Å"sales are frequently developed through the relationships we have created with other people†. For instance: A business networking related to marketing could open up new sales opportunities between two business people who has a common interest in doing business. By gathering a wide-range of business network, a small firm will be able to deliver its product and services using tie-ups with other related

What could help solve poverty in Calcutta Essay

What could help solve poverty in Calcutta - Essay Example A few of the numerous people who come from different backgrounds and they are present in Calcutta include; Christians, Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains. There are numerous languages that are spoken in Calcutta includes but not limited to; Tamil, Urdu, Punjabi and Bengali. One of the biggest issue that Calcutta is facing is overcrowding. The main reason for this is the numerous activities that take place in Calcutta. In addition, there diversity of the people that are present in Calcutta is one of the reason that it has a high population density of 4.5 million people. Another reason for the over population of Calcutta is the Bangladesh conflict which took place in the 1970s which made refugees to settle in the northern and southern suburbs of the city. People move to Calcutta to take, coal, petroleum, manganese, jute, manganese and iron. This is because it is a major export centre of these products. Due to the large population, Calcutta has been having a big unemployment crisis since early 1950s. With the high population density and the equally high levels of poverty, Calcutta has a huge problem when it comes to housing (Banerji, 2007). It is estimated that more than a third of the city lives in places of severe poverty (slumdogs, 2015). In this place, the houses have poor ventilation, very limited sanitary conditions and very little open space. One of the main reason for the poverty is Calcutta is overcrowding. It is brought about when people are numerous and located in just one place (Phelan, 2015). This limits even the ability of the people to get ample space to live. There are numerous reason as to why people may be over populated in one place. As for Calcutta, the main reason for its overpopulation is the fact that numerous activities take place there (Weaver, 1985). The main industries that thrive in Calcutta include; transport industry, export industry, and manufacturing industries. In addition,

Right to privacy Essay Example for Free

Right to privacy Essay One of the hallmarks of every free and democratic society is the enjoyment by the people of their right to privacy. An example of the right to privacy is that which is protected and guaranteed under the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Thus, searches and seizures to be valid must comply with the requirement of â€Å"reasonableness†. In case this requirement is not complied with then any evidence obtained in violation of the Fourth Amendment shall be declared inadmissible in any court of law pursuant to the Exclusionary Rule. One concrete example of the right against unreasonable search is when a police officer squeezes the luggage of a bus passenger in search for drugs. In the case of Bond v. United States, 529 US 334, Bond was a bus passenger when a border patrol agent boarded his bus to check on the immigration status of the passengers. While checking the immigration status of the passengers, the patrol agent it squeezed Bond’s bag and felt an object inside it. When asked, Bond allowed the agent to open it. The agent discovered methamphetamine inside his bag. In this case, the court ruled that the two part-test established under Katz v. United States to make a search valid for purposes of the Fourth Amendment not complied with: a) governmental action must contravene an individuals actual and subjective expectation of privacy; (2) and that expectation of privacy must be reasonable in the sense that society in general would recognize it as such. First, Bond had a reasonable expectation of privacy over his personal belongings and this is manifested by the fact that he brought with him an opaque bag that was placed over his seat. Secondly, the society in general recognizes that such expectation of privacy is reasonable. Although there is the expectation that the said luggage will be handled by other passengers of bus employees, there is no expectation that the luggage will be physically manipulated in an exploratory manner as what the patrol agent conducted in this case. The ruling in this case is particularly important for the protection of the people who are in public vehicles. It bears stressing that the privacy of a person is not limited only to his house, his office, his garage but this right extends even to his personal belongings. Mail Searches The same protection of the right to privacy extends to first-class letters and sealed packages. The rule is that in the absence of any probable cause that will lead police and postal authorities to conclude that there may be illegal contraband inside letters or packages they do not have any authority to inspect and open them for the purpose of searching for any illegal item. The case of United States v. Van Leeuwen is instructive. Even if there is probable cause to believe that there is an illegal contraband inside the letters or packages the same still does not authorize police and postal authorities to open them. Their authority is limited to the right to detain them for a reasonable time sufficient to obtain the required search warrant. It is only when the search warrant is obtained that they may open these letters and packages. The idea behind this principle is simple. The right to privacy and the right against unreasonable search and seizure are so important that suspicions for an illegal contraband inside the letters and packages do not suffice. There is also no justification for police and postal authorities to immediately open these letters and packages since the letters and packages are within their full control which gives them sufficient time to wait until search warrant is secured. Searches and Seizures by Private Persons One limitation of the provisions under the Fourth Amendment is that it extends only to privacy intrusions committed by government agencies and officers. Searches and seizures made by private individuals even if they violate the Fourth Amendment are not protected by the Fourth Amendment. The reason is simple. At the time the Fourth Amendment was included in the US Constitution that same was intended to guard against the potential abuses that government authorities may commit against private individuals. Historically speaking, the Fourth Amendment was originally designed as a response to the controversial writs of assistance that was prevalent before the American Revolution. (â€Å"Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution†) It seeks to limit the power of government authorities and to protect the privacy rights of the people. Thus, considering that private individuals are on equal footing the framers thought that there was no reason to expand the scope of the Fourth Amendment and include therein private individuals. Thus, evidence obtained by private individuals in the course of an unlawful search provided they acted purely on their own and the police did not encourage nor participate in the private search and seizure is admissible. In the first example, if the discovery of methamphetamine was made by an employee of the bus company tasked to conduct routine inspections and searches, then the same does not constitute unreasonable search and the evidence obtained is admissible in court.

Saint Juliana of Nicodemia Essay Example for Free

Saint Juliana of Nicodemia Essay The saint I chose for Confirmation is Saint Juliana of Nicomedia. A saint is a person who lived a moral, compassionate, and holy life who can be a role model to Catholics. You are supposed to choose a saint for Confirmation because you need someone to look up to for support. During tough times, you could ask for assistance through your journey of life. Saint Juliana lived in Nicomedia during the rule of Diocletion. This ruler was inflicted much persecution on people of different religions and had ery cruel punishments established. Both of Juliana’s parent were pagans and betrothed her to the senator, Eleusius. Juliana denied strongly for she was a bride of Christ and always worshiped secretly away from her parents and fiance. Her love for Christ persisted and Eleusius at last found out about her secret faith. He constantly asked her to turn away from Christ and accept his proposal, for the government would get to her and kill her. Her parent pleaded but Juliana’s love for Christ persisted. Finally the government got involved and Juliana was tortured endlessly in all sorts of cruel ways. In the end, she got beheaded. Juliana suffered Christian martyrdom and is usually represented with a devil whom she leads by a chain. I chose Saint Juliana because of her relentless mindset. She was never ashamed of her faith. Juliana was taken to her limit in all she did for Christ. She was tortured, killed, and persecuted all for her faith. I ask her to give me courage and strength when people question my faith.

Torture is Ethically Wrong: Analysis

Torture is Ethically Wrong: Analysis Stephen D. Dillehayes Serving in a combat centered career in the military for almost two decades I have many experiences with the topic of torture. I have attended classes on how to apply and resist, both with varying results. But one of the topics that always come up is Is torture ethically right. I believe argument can be broken down into categories, how it affects the person and how it affects the states, which will reveal how it is fundamentally wrong. Lets look at two sides of the debate. Argument: Premise 1: Provides information in time sensitive situations. Premise 2: The ends justify the means. Premise 3: The enemy uses it, so there isnt a reason we shouldnt. Conclusion: Torture is legally and morally right. Counterargument: Premise 1: By dehumanizing someone you can collect information easier, but this also dehumanizes you. Premise 2: Human rights are suspended by the torturer to get what he wants. Premise 3: Information received validity cant be trusted. Conclusion: Torture is legally and morally wrong. The first premise of the counterargument is centered on the acts of violence inflicted by the torturer. To be affective as a torturer you have to think of your victim as less than human, in order to justify the human rights violations you have to commit to get any useful information. This process have been seen throughout history, the most notable is the Nazis treatment of the Jews in World War II. These actions can led to not only war crimes, human rights violations but also legal ramifications which will have long term effects on the person i.e. criminal charges and psychological damage. For the second premise you have to look at human rights on a global scale. The United Nations, in 1948, wrote the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. One of the Articles contained in it is Article 5, which states No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. In particular, no one shall be subjected without his free consent to medical or scientific experimentation. (UDHR, 1948). The United States of America was one of the members who helped draft and signed this collections of rights. By denying to fall it and allowing personnel within its government or military to use torture as a mean to get information the United States government as a whole is guilty of human rights violations. The last premise can be summed up from the Army Field Manual 34-52 Chapter 1, Experience indicates that the use of force is not necessary to gain the cooperation of sources for interrogation. Therefore, the use of force is a poor technique, as it yields unreliable results, may damage subsequent collection efforts, and can induce the source to say whatever he thinks the interrogator wants to hear. (AFM 34-52, 1992) This statement comes from an organization, the U.S. Army, which has been at war no stop with terrorism for over a decade and they dont even believe torture is an effective way to get information. It is hard to get a better first hand source then that. All of these lead to the conclusion that the argument is fundalmentally flawed. If you look at the main points you can see how they dont support the conclusion, whereas the counter argument not only supports but validates its conclusion. One, provides time sensitive information, which cant be trusted. Two, the ends justify the means, the same argument the Nazis use, which didnt make it right. Finally, our enemy use it so we should. This mindset was ban by the UN, which the US is part of, which makes the premise invalid. By looking at the evidence provided, which shows that torture dehumanized a person, but is globally wrong based off of articles of the UN, there is no other conclusion then torture is wrong. Not only on a personal standard, from what it does to someone. But since the USA has already signed an agreement banning it, it is legally wrong at the state level as well. References Universal Declaration of Human Rights (10 December 1948) retrieved from http://www.claiminghumanrights.org/udhr_article_5.html FM 34-52 (1992, September 28) retrieved from https://fas.org/irp/doddir/army/fm34-52.pdf

The Perception of Change :: Transportation, Driving, Change Blindness

You can miss obvious signs while driving because your mind was wandering, listening to the radio, talking on your cell phone, or even talking to the passenger in your car. Change blindness is the difficulty noticing large changes in your visual senses that are normally easy to be seen (Simon, 2005 ). A main factor in change blindness is attention which is needed to see change (Simon, 2005). The perception of a change occurs when the attention is on the object being changed (Rensink, 1997). Changes to items in a central location are easier to detect than objects elsewhere and the objects that are in the same physical distance (Simon, 2005). Your attention can be distributed to 4-5 items at a time but only detect one change at that moment which is called change simultagnosia (Simon, 2005). Inattentional blindness was first studied by Ulric Neisser and his colleagues in the 1970s. Their study involved subjects viewing an attention-demanding task video where groups of players passing a ball. Subjects were asked to watch one group pass the ball back and forth while ignoring the other group who passed the ball. While this was taking place a woman carrying an umbrella walked through the scene which many subjected failed to notice (Simon, 2010). Simons and Chabris replicated this experiment by using a woman dressed in a gorilla suit that stopped in the middle of the video and thumped its chest for 9 seconds and only 50% of viewers noticed. The gorilla video is a well-known video on visual awareness with about 90% of people say they would notice the gorilla. A new video was later made in front of a green screen so that they could change the color of the curtain behind the event taking place. They had the gorilla walk through the scene stopped and faced the camera while he thumped his chest then left the scene. The curtain colored changed along with a player of the black team left the scene (Simons, 2010). (Beck, 2001) Detecting visual change in the environment is important and it is reported that people are poor when detecting the change during a screen flicker which causes the blindness to occur. When you divide your attention between two tasks you pay less attention to the second one than the primary task (Beck, 2001).

security trader :: essays research papers

The financial occupation of a security trader is a highly rigorous and pressure filled position. A security trader must constantly be aware of the current market position, as well as be able to predict in the near future what the market will do, based both on past outcomes and personal predictions. A position as a security trader is likely to be highly dictated by one’s own self-motivation. Yearly income is based on commission, and being able to get new clients as well as retain old ones is based purely on the performance of the broker. If the broker can not provide a monetary gain for his client, then it puts more pressure on both the broker and the client, which could strain the relationship. Entry level individuals may find long hours and commission to be cumbersome out of the college environment but can eventually lead to be the keys to success within the field. Advancement within a firm also is based on the broker’s work ethic, as it is solely up to the broker to decide how far he wishes to advance within the securities exchange market. Andrew Charbonneau Finance 323: Investments Prof Kish A security sales and trading agent is a financial occupation that I would hope to pursue upon graduation. Being a trader is something that has always been of interest to me, as it seems as though the fast pace and constant changes within the market would be a challenging yet rewarding job. The exchange of securities is an aspect of finance is under constant technological advancement, as computers have revolutionized the way that traders can trade bonds and stocks. Once there was only floor trading, but now thanks to the benefit of computers, desk traders have become a growing and more prominent part of securities exchange. The internet has also allowed for the globalization of world marketplaces, and is another reason for this growing financial division. Aside from globalization, the internet has allowed for more online trading firms to open, expanding the need for traders. Generally speaking there are two kinds of traders: floor traders and desk traders. Floor traders is the occupation of one who physically runs around the trading floor like the New York Stock Exchange looking for buyers and sellers for their tickets. The floor broker will receive the order electronically when on the floor, and then will try to find the best price for the security that they are buying or selling.

Television Violence Essay -- TV Ratings System

I went to pick up my daughter from preschool today only to find out that she punched a little girl. She also kicked the teacher. I sat down with her and asked her why she hurt them. She said, "I didn't hurt them I was using my powers." I wondered where she might be getting the idea that she had powers, and that it didn't hurt anyone when she used those powers. I thought back to the last few nights. The only different thing in her life was the new show Power Puff Girls. It was then I realized that this new cartoon show she had been watching at home just might be the cause. Children learn behavior through examples. Television is a major influence. One area of concern is the violent content in children's television and their access to other inappropriate programming. The government has the ability to rule and regulate stations both nationally and locally. Exposure to violence on television can affect the way children behave toward their environment. This creates an additional responsibility for parents and teachers to not only protect children from violence but to also teach children to resist violence. Because of the negative influence of violent television programming for children, and their easy access to other violent programs; the government, teachers, and parents need to educate and protect children against violence. Thanks to technology, we have many more opportunities available to us. This expands the world of education to many who would otherwise not have it. However, this advance of technology has also allowed our children to be exposed to inappropriate programming on television. The violent content is not only on regular programs that children are allowed to view, but it is also a main theme in shows geared to young children, especially in cartoons. I asked Jean Cobb, a Child Care Provider at The Children's Center, "What type of programming has the most violent influence and why?" She said, "Cartoons have always been around but the violence hasn't been brought to our attention until recently. There aren't many cartoons that don't have violence." Children learn a lot of their behavior through the examples set on television. These behaviors appear while interacting with other children. I have observed children fight, hit, bite, spit and use many mean words to other children. The same behavior is commonplace on children's programming. This can... ...side affects of the violent behavior. Parents must be wary of the programming that children are viewing. In combining our efforts government, teachers, and parents can teach children to act and react appropriately and responsibly. Cobb said, "I think everyone in their daily lives and all of society have stressful times. Adults need to learn to handle their emotions so that we can be role models for the children. We need peers to use as a sounding board to keep our frustrations in tact." In order to teach, we need to be teachable. In order to protect, we need to be informed of dangers. Protecting, educating, and teaching resistance to violence are some ways to help improve children's behavior. Works Cited "Child and Family Canada" Television Violence: A Review of the Effects on Children of Different Ages http://www.cfc-efc.ca/docs/00001068.htm Cobb, Jean. Child Care Provider USI. Personal Interview. 17 Nov. 2011. "Factsheet" Chronology of Main Events & Initiatives Undertaken Related To The Issue Of Television Violence   Ã‚  2010 http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/info_sht/tvle.htm "A Family Guide to TV Ratings" A Family Guide to TV Ratings http://www.ncta.com/guidelines.html Television Violence Essay -- TV Ratings System I went to pick up my daughter from preschool today only to find out that she punched a little girl. She also kicked the teacher. I sat down with her and asked her why she hurt them. She said, "I didn't hurt them I was using my powers." I wondered where she might be getting the idea that she had powers, and that it didn't hurt anyone when she used those powers. I thought back to the last few nights. The only different thing in her life was the new show Power Puff Girls. It was then I realized that this new cartoon show she had been watching at home just might be the cause. Children learn behavior through examples. Television is a major influence. One area of concern is the violent content in children's television and their access to other inappropriate programming. The government has the ability to rule and regulate stations both nationally and locally. Exposure to violence on television can affect the way children behave toward their environment. This creates an additional responsibility for parents and teachers to not only protect children from violence but to also teach children to resist violence. Because of the negative influence of violent television programming for children, and their easy access to other violent programs; the government, teachers, and parents need to educate and protect children against violence. Thanks to technology, we have many more opportunities available to us. This expands the world of education to many who would otherwise not have it. However, this advance of technology has also allowed our children to be exposed to inappropriate programming on television. The violent content is not only on regular programs that children are allowed to view, but it is also a main theme in shows geared to young children, especially in cartoons. I asked Jean Cobb, a Child Care Provider at The Children's Center, "What type of programming has the most violent influence and why?" She said, "Cartoons have always been around but the violence hasn't been brought to our attention until recently. There aren't many cartoons that don't have violence." Children learn a lot of their behavior through the examples set on television. These behaviors appear while interacting with other children. I have observed children fight, hit, bite, spit and use many mean words to other children. The same behavior is commonplace on children's programming. This can... ...side affects of the violent behavior. Parents must be wary of the programming that children are viewing. In combining our efforts government, teachers, and parents can teach children to act and react appropriately and responsibly. Cobb said, "I think everyone in their daily lives and all of society have stressful times. Adults need to learn to handle their emotions so that we can be role models for the children. We need peers to use as a sounding board to keep our frustrations in tact." In order to teach, we need to be teachable. In order to protect, we need to be informed of dangers. Protecting, educating, and teaching resistance to violence are some ways to help improve children's behavior. Works Cited "Child and Family Canada" Television Violence: A Review of the Effects on Children of Different Ages http://www.cfc-efc.ca/docs/00001068.htm Cobb, Jean. Child Care Provider USI. Personal Interview. 17 Nov. 2011. "Factsheet" Chronology of Main Events & Initiatives Undertaken Related To The Issue Of Television Violence   Ã‚  2010 http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/info_sht/tvle.htm "A Family Guide to TV Ratings" A Family Guide to TV Ratings http://www.ncta.com/guidelines.html

Climate Chenge in Bangladesh

Term Paper on â€Å"Climate Change and Bangladesh† Submitted by 1. Quazi Nizam Uddin, ID-5176 2. Kazi Md. Golam Quddus, ID-5168 MBA(F) 4th Batch , Fall semister-2010 Submitted for Mohammad Jahangir Alam Asst Professor , Jahangir Nagar University & South East University Managerial Economics (ECO-5123) South East University Executive SummaryBangladesh is frequently cited as one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change because of its disadvantageous geographic location, flat and low-lying topography, high population density, high levels of poverty, reliance of many livelihoods on climate sensitive sectors- particularly agriculture and fisheries and inefficient institutional aspects.Many of the anticipated adverse affects of climate change, such as sea level rise, higher temperatures, enhanced monsoon precipitation, and an increase in cyclone intensity, will aggravate the existing stresses that already impede development in Bangladesh, particularly by reducing water and food security and damaging essential infrastructure. These impacts could be extremely detrimental to the economy, the environment, national development, and the people of Bangladesh.Bangladesh has developed some capacity for dealing with the impacts of climate change at the national level, and policy response options have been mobilized that deal with vulnerability reduction to environmental variability in general, and more recently, to climate change in particular. In addition, Bangladesh has for some time been recognized as a particularly vulnerable country by the international community, and has received disaster management and adaptation support in several sectors.Some reasons for climate changes are increase in CO2 levels, green house effect, industrialization, urbanization, burning fossils fuels, deforestation, population growth etc. Many of the projected impacts of climate change will reinforce the baseline environmental, socio-economic and demographic stresses already faced by Bangladesh. Climate change is likely to result in i. Increased flooding, both in terms of extent and frequency, associated with sea level rise, greater monsoon precipitation and increased glacial melt (ii).Increased vulnerability to cyclone and storm surges (iii. ) Increased moisture stress during dry periods leading to increased drought (iv. ) Increased salinity intrusion (v. )Greater temperature extremes All kinds of climate change impacts should be accounted for in both design criteria and location. Selected development programs on the need and possibilities to include climate change considerations in their approach and the possible contribution they could have to anticipatory adaptations.Sometime physical interventions are generally in-effective and costly, whilst requiring maintenance arrangements and coordination of separate initiatives. More promising anticipatory adaptations are changes in behavioral patterns, human practices and international actions. However, these type of adaptations meet serious institutional constraints and consequently should be carefully prepared and, if possible, integrated in existing structures and procedures. The main mechanisms to gradually overcome these constraints are coordination of climate change activities, (integrated) planning and information management.Capacity building including assisting the creation of a ‘climate change cell’ within the Department of Environment (DOE) to build government capacity for coordination and leadership on climate change issues needed. The cell can coordinates awareness raising, advocacy and mechanisms to promote climate change adaptation and risk reduction in development activities, as well as strengthening existing knowledge and information accessibility on impacts and adaptation to climate change. Introduction As a part of our MBA course program we have to submit a term paper.As our course teacher selected the topics â€Å"Climate Change and Bangladesh†. Accordi ngly we have to write on this topic. Climate change is a long-term change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods of time that range from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in the average weather conditions or a change in the distribution of weather events with respect to an average, for example, greater or fewer extreme weather events. Climate change may be limited to a specific region, or may occur across the whole Earth.In recent usage, especially in the context of environmental policy, climate change usually refers to changes in modern climate. It may be qualified as anthropogenic climate change, more generally known as global warming or anthropogenic global warming Bangladesh is frequently cited as one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change because of its disadvantageous geographic location, flat and low-lying topography, high population density, high levels of poverty, reliance of many livelihoods on climate sensitive sectors- particularly agriculture and fisheries and inefficient institutional aspects.Many of the anticipated adverse affects of climate change, such as sea level rise, higher temperatures, enhanced monsoon precipitation, and an increase in cyclone intensity, will aggravate the existing stresses that already impede development in Bangladesh, particularly by reducing water and food security and damaging essential infrastructure.These impacts could be extremely detrimental to the economy, the environment, national development, and the people of Bangladesh. Bangladesh is one of the largest deltas in the world, formed by a dense network of the distributaries of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, and the Meghna, and more than 230 major rivers and their tributaries and distributaries. The total land area is 147, 570 sq km and consists mostly of low, flat land. 0 per cent of the land is floodplain, and only in the extreme northwest do elevations exceed 30 meters above mean sea level, making the major ity of Bangladesh (with the exception of the highlands) prone to flooding at least part of the year, with the floodplains of the north western, central, south central and north eastern regions subject to regular flooding. Between 30-70 per cent of the country is normally flooded each year. The extent of flooding is exacerbated by the sediment loads brought by the three major Himalayan rivers, coupled with a negligible flow gradient, which increases congestion.Bangladesh has developed some capacity for dealing with the impacts of climate change at the national level, and policy response options have been mobilized that deal with vulnerability reduction to environmental variability in general, and more recently, to climate change in particular. In addition, Bangladesh has for some time been recognized as a particularly vulnerable country by the international community, and has received disaster management and adaptation support in several sectors. ReasonsThe increase in CO2 levels due to emissions from fossil fuel combustion, followed by aerosols (particulate matter in the atmosphere) and cement manufacture. Other factors, including land use, ozone depletion, animal agriculture and deforestation, are also of concern in the roles they play – both separately and in conjunction with other factors – in affecting climate, microclimate, and measures of climate variables. Greenhouse Effect The Earth is surrounded by a layer of gases that act to trap heat. These so-called ‘greenhouse gases’ are necessary to sustain life on Earth.Like the glass walls of a greenhouse, they let the sun’s rays enter but stop some of the heat from escaping, keeping the planet warm enough to allow life. However, as people cause more greenhouse gases to be released into the atmosphere, the greenhouse effect becomes stronger. More heat is trapped and the Earth's climate begins to change unnaturally. Greenhouse gases mainly consist of water vapours and carbon di oxide, sulpher dioxide and include other gases like methane and nitrous oxide. Industrialization From the 16th Century and onwards the European nations went to developed industries.With the inception industrialization, there is more emission, deforestation (for place, fuel and buildings) had occurred. Urbanization With the modern civilization, people went for urbanization in every country. People made houses, offices, factories, schools, hospitals, markets and roads etc by eliminating forests and woods. Burning fossil fuels When fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas are burned, they release greenhouse gases. In 2005, burning fossil fuels sent about 27 billion tones of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.People burn fossil fuels to create energy, which is used for many things including †¢ heating homes and buildings †¢ growing, transporting and cooking food †¢ traveling (for example, by car, plane, bus and train) †¢ treating water to make it drinkable, heating it and piping it into homes †¢ manufacturing, using and transporting products, from clothes to fridges, from plastic bags to batteries Deforestation Cutting down forests faster than they are replaced (deforestation) is a major contributor to climate change. It causes 5. 9 billion tones of CO2 per year to be released into the air.This accounts for 20 per cent of the world’s carbon emissions – more than the entire global transport sector produces. Deforestation makes such a huge contribution to carbon emissions because trees absorb CO2 as they grow. The more trees that are cut down, the fewer there will be left to absorb CO2, leading to  it building up in the atmosphere. In addition, the agriculture and industry that replace the forests often cause an extra problem by producing carbon emissions of their own. Population Growth As the world’s population grows, there  are more people who need food, livestock and energy.This increased demand leads to increased emis sions. ImpactsLoss on Environment Many of the projected impacts of climate change will reinforce the baseline environmental, socio-economic and demographic stresses already faced by Bangladesh. Climate change is likely to result in i. Increased flooding, both in terms of extent and frequency, associated with sea level rise, greater monsoon precipitation and increased glacial melt ii. Increased vulnerability to cyclone and storm surges iii. Increased moisture stress during dry periods leading to increased drought iv. Increased salinity intrusion v.Greater temperature extremes Increased flooding Sea level rise is also associated with increased riverine flooding, because it causes more backing up of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna rivers along the delta. This will result in increased drainage congestion due to higher water levels, which will be exacerbated by other factors associated with climate change such as siltation of estuary branches in line with increased surface runoff, and high er riverbed levels. Higher temperatures will result in increased glacier melt, increasing runoff from the neighboring Himalayas into the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers.Increased intensity of cyclone winds and precipitation The IPCC conclude that there is evidence of a 5-10 per cent increase in intensity (wind speed) that would contribute to enhanced storm surges and coastal flooding, and also project a 20 per cent increase in intensity of associated precipitation that would contribute to flooding. Cyclone winds are likely to increase in intensity because of the positive correlation with sea surface temperature. In November 2007, for example, the tropical cyclone Sidr, with a 100 mile long front covering the breadth of the country and with winds up to 240 km per hour, hit Bangladesh.This was noted to be an unusual occurrence given the intensity and timing of the storm, particularly given that it occurred in the same year as two recurrent floods. Increased moisture stress during dry pe riods Climate change will exacerbate drought in Bangladesh both in terms of intensity and frequency linked to higher mean temperatures and potentially reduced dry season precipitation. Monsoon rains produce 80% of Bangladesh’s annual precipitation, and when this is reduced, drought is a significant problem; between 1960 and 1991, a total of 19 droughts occurred inBangladesh. The Southwest and Northwest regions are particularly susceptible to drought. Greater precipitation extremes associated with climate change also mean less rainfall in the dry season, which will increase water stress on those areas that already experience water shortages, particularly in the winter months. This will be worse for those areas that depend on glacial melt water for their main dry-season water supply, as glaciers recede with rising temperatures. Increased salinityThe availability of freshwater will be reduced by increased salinity intrusion into fresh water sources during the low flow conditions . In the coastal regions this is brought about by sea level rise resulting in saline water intrusion in the estuaries and into the groundwater. The effects are exacerbated by greater evaporation and evapo-transpiration of freshwater as temperatures increase, coupled with a greater demand for fresh water in times of water stress. Greater temperature extremes Climate change is associated with hotter summers and colder winters.Temperatures in Bangladesh have increased about 1 °C in May and 0. 5  °C in November between 1985 and 1998, and further temperature increases are expected. However, although the overall climate is warming, temperature extremes are increasing, and winter temperatures as low as 5 °C have been recorded in January 2007, reportedly the lowest in 38 years. ImpactsLoss on Economy Agriculture and fisheries The economy of Bangladesh is based on agriculture, with two thirds of the population engaged in or indirectly relying on agricultural activities.Agriculture is o ne of the most sensitive sectors to climate change, particularly changes in temperature, rainfall patterns, and increased likelihood of extreme events such as droughts and floods. Although an increase in CO2 levels could under moderate temperature increases result in an increase in cropping yields, through carbon fertilization, modeling studies suggest that increasing frequency of crop loss due to extreme events, such as droughts and heavy precipitation, may overcome any benefits of moderate temperature increases.In Bangladesh, the overall impact of climate change on agricultural production will be negative. While inundation to a lesser degree has had a positive impact on production, with perennial floods bringing silt and nutrients increasing the fertility of the soils, prolonged floods have had a detrimental impact on crop yields; in two severe floods, 1974 and 1987, the shortfalls in production were about 0. 8 and 1. 0 Mt respectively. On average during the period 1962-1988, Bang ladesh lost about 0. million tones’ of rice annually as a result of floods, which accounts for nearly 30% of the country’s average annual food grain imports Other impacts of climate change such as temperature extremes, drought, and salinity intrusion, are also causing declining crop yields in Bangladesh. Several studies have been conducted in Bangladesh to assess the vulnerability of food grain production to various climate scenarios. One such study2 noted that a 4 °C increase in temperature would have a sever impact on food production in Bangladesh, resulting in a 28 per cent reduction for rice and a 68 per cent reduction for wheat.Temperature and rainfall changes have already affected crop production in many parts of Bangladesh, and the area of arable land has already decreased. The shortening of the winter season is resulting in a decline in production of winter crops, particularly potatoes. The salinity intrusion experienced by the coastal area of Bangladesh is h aving serious implications for the quality of the soil in areas that were traditionally used for growing rice. Under a moderate climate scenario the decline in yields due to salinity intrusion could be 0. 2 Mt, which increases to 0. 6 Mt under more severe scenarios. Increases in water stress have also affected the production of major crops, again particularly rice, which needs significant amounts of water. The fisheries sector may also be adversely affected by climate change. The fisheries sector contributes to about 3. 5 per cent of the GDP in Bangladesh, and people rely on fish products to make up the majority of daily protein dietary requirements. There are 260 species of fish in Bangladesh, all of which are sensitive to particular salt and freshwater conditions.The changes in tidal patterns, as well as increasing saline intrusion into the freshwater rivers, associated with climate change, will impact on fish populations, although the extent to which this occurs is still uncertai n. The implications of climate change for agriculture and fisheries are extremely significant, not only because of the livelihoods implications for the majority of the population who depend on agricultural outputs and systems, but also because of the threat to Bangladesh’s food security, where projections suggest that by the year 2030 food-grain requirements will be 41. 6 million tones.To become self sufficient in food grain production by 2030, an additional 14. 64 million tones will be required. Further, about 80 per cent of animal protein intake in Bangladeshi daily diets comes from fish. The population of Bangladesh almost doubled in less than thirty years from 1961, and now stands at over 143 million. According to projections the requirement of food grain in the country will be 42. 8 Mt by 2030. Increase vulnerability to crop production makes this near impossible and with fisheries also vulnerable to climate change, food security in Bangladesh is unlikely to be achieved.W ater resources and hydrology In Bangladesh, the effects of climate change on the surface and groundwater resources will be entirely negative. In terms of flooding, a report by the states that future changes in precipitation in Bangladesh have four distinct implications i. The timing of occurrence of floods may change, with implications for the seasonality of the hydrological cycle ii. Increase precipitation in the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna basins may increase the magnitude, depth and patial extent of floods iii. The timing of peaking in the major rivers may also change, which may in turn change the likelihood of synchronization of flood peaks of major rivers iv. Increased magnitude, depth, extent and duration of floods will bring a dramatic change in land use patterns in Bangladesh. Other changes include increases in evaporation rates, reduction in dry season transboundary flows resulting in an increase in irrigation water requirements, sea level rise that will exacerbate drain age congestion.Bangladesh also faces frequent flash floods, higher frequency of tropical cyclones, rise in storm surge depths, and slower accretion of coastal lands. Changes to water resources and hydrology will have a major impact on Bangladesh, where people depend on the surface water for fish cultivation, navigation, industrial and other uses, and where the ground water is used for domestic purposes and irrigation. The impacts on agriculture have already been noted. These problems will be further exacerbated by poor water management, both nationally and trans-boundary.For example, the effect of water diversion upstream on dry season flows and salinity levels on coastal mangroves in Bangladesh was found to be comparable, if not higher, than the impact that might be experienced several decades later as in line with climate change projections. Coastal areas Coastal areas in Bangladesh are on the ‘front line’ of climate change, directly affected by storm surges, drainage congestion, and sea level rise. Most of Bangladesh is less than ten meters above sea level, with almost ten per cent of the country below 1 meter, making it extremely vulnerable to increasing high tides.With sea levels expected to rise by an average of two to three mm per year during the first part of this century[21], the effects on the coastal areas will be severe, and include erosion, coastal land subsistence, siltation of river estuaries, reduced sedimentation, water logging, and saltwater intrusion. The coastal area of Bangladesh and the Bay of Bengal are located at the tip of the northern Indian Ocean, which is frequently hit by severe cyclonic storms, generating long tidal waves that are aggravated by the shallow bay [5].Although Bangladesh now has good early warning systems and cyclone shelters have been constructed along much of the coast, infrastructure and livelihoods are still threatened and severely affected, hampering further development of the coastal areas. 30 distr icts were damaged by clone Sidr for example, with the 11 districts closest to the coast damaged most severely. Coastal areas will also be affected by salinity intrusion. Saltwater from the Bay of Bengal already penetrates 100 kilometres inland during the dry season, and climate change is likely to exacerbate this.Pressure from an increasing population and rising demand for groundwater further reduces the availability of freshwater supplies for domestic and industrial purposes A quarter of the population lives in the coastal areas, with the majority of the population reliant on or affected by coastal activities. If sea levels rises up to one meter this century, Bangladesh could lose up to 15 per cent of its landmass and up to 30 million Bangladeshis could become climate refugees. In these areas, agriculture, industry, infrastructure, livelihoods, marine resources, forestry and biodiversity, human health, and utility services will all suffer.Such a scenario could lead to a decline in GDP of between 27 and 57 per cent. Forestry Biodiversity Ecosystems and biodiversity may be at greatest risk of all sectors sensitive to climate change. Bangladesh has a diverse range of forest ecosystems, including savannah, bamboo, freshwater swamp forests and mangroves. The Sundarbans of Bangladesh, a world heritage sight, is the single largest mangrove area in the world, comprising an area of 577,00 ha, and housing one of the richest natural gene pools. A total of 425 species have been identified there, the most notable of which is the Bengal tiger, which is endemic to the area.Climate change will have a detrimental impact on all of the forest ecosystems in Bangladesh, and the Sundarbans are likely to be the worst affected. Sea level rise may inundate parts of the Sundarbans and ecosystems are threatened by salinization of surface and groundwater. Higher water temperatures, loss of brackish-waters and reduced flows could harm fisheries. Human development has in many cases fragme nted or reduced habitat decreased species population and blocked the migration routes of species. The Sundarbans also offer subsistence to around 3. million inhabitants who live within and around the forest boundary. The inundation and intruding salinity are interrupting traditional practices in the Sundarbans. Although there are opportunities for shrimp farming in increased salinisation, shrimp farmers are encouraged to inundate their land with brackish water during times of low salinity, exacerbating damage to the forest cover. Depleting forests are putting further pressure on forest resources such as fuel wood and timber, enhancing the rate of forest depletion. Human Health Climate change affects health directly and indirectly.The most direct impacts of climate change on human health occur through extreme events, for example the floods in Bangladesh in 2004 caused 800 deaths, while the recent cyclone affected more than 8. 5 million people, causing more than 3,500 deaths. Climate change will also affect the distribution of climate sensitive diseases. Malaria is a frequently cited example, because its prevalence increases in line with the warmer, wetter climates that are anticipated with climate change. Incidences of malaria have increased dramatically in Bangladesh over the last 30 years, and it is now a major public health problem, with 14. million people in Bangladesh classified as high risk for catching the disease. Other diseases such as dysentery, diarrhea, dengue, hypertension associated with heat stress, asthma and skin diseases are also increasing in Bangladesh, particularly during the summer months. While a causative connection between climate change and these diseases is of course difficult to verify, the conditions associated with climate change (in terms of temperature, rainfall, and salinity) and the impacts on water supply, sanitation and food production, generate favorable environments for the incidence and spread of such diseases.For example, increased flooding as well as drought is resulting in a decline in the availability of clean water, for a country where water-borne diseases are already responsible for 24 per cent of all deaths. Urban areas The risk to human health in tropical developing countries is one of the salient risks of climate change. Drainage congestion and standing water will increase the potential for outbreaks of cholera and other waterborne and diarrheal diseases.The pressure on the availability and access to safe water, in particular during the dry period, and the increasing reliance on groundwater are an additional threat. Natural disasters threaten people and there belongings. Finally the pressure on agricultural production may result in malnutrition. Cyclone Sidr affected the infrastructure of more than half a million homes, with nearly one million all or particularly destroyed, and more than 10,000 schools all or partially destroyed.The key sectors affected by floods in Bangladesh’s citie s include infrastructure, industry, trade, commerce and utility services, all of which reduce in productivity during and after major flooding, increasing the vulnerability of the urban poor. And the adverse impacts of climate change on rural areas cause increased migration to urban areas in search of non-agricultural employment, putting greater pressure on scarce housing, water, sanitation, and energy services and increasing the number of vulnerable urban poor who are particularly at risk from climate related disasters.A greater part of this migrated population lives in slums and squatter settlements in the cities. Particularly vulnerable groups The urban poor are therefore especially vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, because of the fragility of the infrastructure of slums and squatter settlements, and the lack of employment security. In the rural areas, those with insecure land tenure, particularly the lower Adivasi castes, and women, are also particularly vulnerable. Wo men are the main users and carriers of water. As the availability and uality of water declines and resources become scarcer, women will suffer increasing work loads to collect un-salivated water to sustain their families. ResponsesProtection Measures National policy response options There is no comprehensive national policy in Bangladesh that specifically targets climate change risks. However, the Bangladesh government is aware of the importance of climate change, as well as the country’s historical sensitivity to climate variability in general, and there are several policy response options that exist that relate to climate change.These include indirectly addressing the impacts of climate change through programmes that reduce vulnerability through for example poverty alleviation, employment generation, crop diversification; directly addressing vulnerability to climate variability and extreme events through disaster risk reductions and management schemes; and specifically targ eting climate change by mainstreaming climate change into sectoral plans and national policies. A selection of policies that reduce vulnerability to climate variability, and also specifically climate change, will be discussed here.Vulnerability Reduction In Bangladesh ongoing projects address food insecurity and food production shortfalls by crop diversification and generation of alternative employment opportunities aimed at community development, agricultural development, credit facilities, and infrastructure improvement. Fish and shrimp production for domestic consumption and exports are promoted with special emphasis on rural poverty alleviation and employment generation. All such developmental programmes are important in enhancing the resilience of the poor. Disaster Management and Climate Risk ManagementBangladesh has a Participatory Disaster Management Programme (PDMP) with a focus on disaster management and prevention, and also adaptation to climate change. The focus is on â €˜soft’ measures to reduce the impacts of disasters, with an emphasis on preparedness, such as awareness raising of practical ways to reduce disaster risks and losses, to strengthen national capacity for disaster management; enhance knowledge and skills of personnel in handling disasters; establishing disaster action plans in the most disaster prone areas; promoting local-level risk reduction measures; and improving early warning systems.In 2003 Bangladesh also established a Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme (CDMP) with UNDP and other donor assistance, with the aim of refocusing the government towards greater emphasis on disaster preparedness and risk reduction. CDMP has a number of disaster management components, among them to establish an integrated approach to climate change and disaster management, expanding risk reduction approaches across a broader range of hazards, with specific reference to climate change. There are three main areas of focus i.Capacity bu ilding for the Ministry of Environment and the Department of Environment to coordinate and mainstream climate change into their existing activities; ii. Strengthening existing knowledge and information accessibility on impact prediction and adaptation; iii. Awareness raising, advocacy and coordination to promote climate change adaptation into development activities. Capacity building included assisting the creation of a ‘climate change cell’ within the Department of Environment (DOE) to build government capacity for coordination and leadership on climate change issues.The cell coordinates awareness raising, advocacy and mechanisms to promote climate change adaptation and risk reduction in development activities, as well as strengthening existing knowledge and information accessibility on impacts and adaptation to climate change. Mainstreaming climate change into development and national planning The Bangladesh government is integrating climate change into sectoral plans and national policies. The World Bank’s recommendations on the impacts of limate change have been incorporated into coastal zone management programs and adopted in the preparation of disaster preparedness plans and a new 25 year water sector plan. In agriculture, research programs have taken place in light of climate change information, particularly drought and saline tolerant rice varieties. Bangladesh’s interim poverty reduction strategy paper (I-PSRP) recognizes the direct link between poverty and vulnerability to natural hazards, and notes that the incidence of disasters is likely to increase rather than decrease as a result of global warming.According to the National Water Management Plan (NWMP) (in 2001), the factors determining future water supply, including the impacts of sea level rise, which guides the implementation of the National Water Policy (NWP). Further, many of the NWP and NWMP priorities are synergistic with climate change adaptation, such as the re commendation in the NWP for early warming and flood proofing systems. Other environmental policies, including the National Environmental Management Plan (NEMAP), the National Land Use Policy, and the National Forest Policy, do not make specific reference to climate change.Some initiatives usually taken and some are in underway for adaptation 1. Giving donations and raising after disaster. In Bangladesh, after any major disaster we went for relief activities, rehabilitation and medical care with local and foreign donations. Government and NGOs are involved in extensive activities after the disaster. Bangladesh has already earned a reputation for disaster management especially after the management of cyclone Sidr in 2007. 2. Raising homes in the flood prone areas. In the flood and cyclone hit areas people are building houses with higher heights. 3.Building protecting walls and dams is important to save houses and croplands from floods and inundation. These are needed to avert erosion. 4. Need faster maturing crops (seeds). In this regards, we got some achievements. Now in our country, we can grow three crops in a year in the high agricultural lands. Research is underway in this regard by BRRI, IRRI and other private organizations and NGOs. 5. Need drought tolerant crops (seeds). Research is underway in this regard by BRRI, IRRI and other private organizations and NGOs. In some African nations, some successful plantation f drought tolerant crops (seeds) encourages us to grow in the north-western regions of Bangladesh. 6. We need saline tolerant crops (seeds) as the salinity in the southern region is increasing and it is swarming deeper inside. An Extensive research is underway in this regard by IRRI and other private organizations and NGOs for the southern region of Bangladesh. 7. Met office information should be communicated with all even farmers. Met office always tries to communicate the information through radio and television and also through print media.But it should be more intensive. In this regard, Mobile communication can be used for disseminating information to the farmers. 8. Using rainwater in gardens and household use. It is not that popular in our country though government is trying to promote it. 9. Seed and food storage is needed for the food and seed security. Government is increasing its capacity to store food. Government is also trying to build capacity of the seed bank in Jessore. People also should play their role in this respect. 10. Flood and cyclone shelters.Governments with its own fund and donors’ funds have built many shelters. Many more shelters will be built in future. 11. Raised wells and ponds in the flood and cyclone hit areas. 12. Raising latrines in every house because low level toilet facilities would contaminate water when flood strikes. People are coming forward for making safe and raised latrines. 13. Reforestation is important because trees are lifesavers. They help to regulate rainfalls, mitig ate extremes of floods and droughts and also landslides.In Bangladesh government department, NGOs and common people are planting trees. There is a campaign for tree plantation from all. 14. In some areas floating vegetable gardens are built on water bodies. Farmers can grow vegetables even during flood. It will be popular in future in many more areas. Conclusions and recommendations Climate change is not only an â€Å"environmental† concern but really a â€Å"development† concern for Bangladesh. This means that climate change as an issue must take center stage as a major developmental problem.Bangladesh is particularly vulnerable to climate change in its coastal zone, covering about 30 per cent of the country. Here prospects of industrial development, based on its rich energy resources, will seriously be constrained by the increased occurrence of coastal storms, flooding and reduced fresh water availability. The study also analyzes impacts on water resources, agricultu re, ecosystems and human health, concluding that in all these sectors, the country’s drive to development might be seriously restrained if no anticipatory actions are taken.Ecosystems and biodiversity, as a key sector for sustainable development, merits particular attention and of all sectors vulnerable to climate change this may be the most vulnerable. This not only refers to a few itemized ecosystems or endangered species. This will result a loss of productivity as well, seriously challenging the country’s prospect for sustainable development. Cyclone shelters and improved warning systems are confirmed as effective tools against the increased risks of disasters. Bangladesh has already a good record in this respect, which merits to be strengthened where possible.For water resources should aim to substantially reduce the risk of drainage congestion, erosion and drought, explicitly addressing the management of water resources both in the wet and in the dry season for do mestic, industrial, irrigation, navigation, and ecosystem use. Reducing water demand may be needed and this requires an integrated approach to water resources planning and management that will also coordinate design, operation and maintenance of major infrastructure and embankments. In agriculture should aim at changing agricultural practices to improving water efficiency and crop diversification in the whole country.The development and introduction of new varieties and corresponding dissemination measures are important and need to be facilitated by (inter)national research. Government and private sector should invest more money and resources in Research activities. Experience with new crops and agricultural practices have to be shared on the farm level. The impact of climate change on human health depends critically on the success to adapt to climate change in the other sectors. Of course, human health would be less vulnerable with an improved health care system, reliable drinking water supply and improved sanitation.All kinds of climate change impacts should be accounted for in both design criteria and location. Selected development programs on the need and possibilities to include climate change considerations in their approach and the possible contribution they could have to anticipatory adaptations. Sometime physical interventions are generally in-effective and costly, whilst requiring maintenance arrangements and coordination of separate initiatives. More promising anticipatory adaptations are changes in behavioral patterns, human practices and international actions.However, these type of adaptations meet serious institutional constraints and consequently should be carefully prepared and, if possible, integrated in existing structures and procedures. The main mechanisms to gradually overcome these constraints are coordination of climate change activities, (integrated) planning and information management. It is highly recommended that next steps to reduce Bangladesh’ vulnerability to impacts of climate change and sea level rise, concentrate on the adaptation mechanisms of planning, information management and international actions.Here, the National Water Management Plan (NWMP) that is currently being developed and the Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan (ICZMP) under design offer key opportunities. The following specific actions are recommended 1. Establish an operational structure to coordinate climate change activities in Bangladesh. The following steps could be considered. 2. Revive the Climate Change Committee and review their Terms of Reference. 3. Involve the CCC in the design of planning procedures and guidelines; the research agenda and activities; the awareness building program; and the preparation and support of Bangladesh' international actions. . Establish an operational technical secretariat, to support the CCC. 5. Link the CCC activities to or establish communication with the national councils on water resou rces and environment. 6. Strengthen the existing structure and ongoing processes to develop and implement integrated water resources management. Participation on different levels and strengthening of local management organizations are essential parts of integrated planning. 7. Strengthen integrated coastal zone management, focusing on protection, land use and water management. 8.Prepare practical guidelines to include climate change issues in procedures for planning and design, and explore the possibility and feasibility of Climate Change Impact Assessments. 9. Establish, manage and execute a coordinated research agenda on climate change impacts. 10. Develop and operate a shared climate change knowledge base 11. Develop a plan of action for awareness building, optimally using the platforms and avenues created by the BEMP and SEMP projects, explicitly involving the Ministry of Information, the FEJP, CBOs and NGOs. 12. Promote, structure and support international activities.Two types of international activities have been identified (i) international debates on effects, mitigation and adaptation, and (ii) water sharing negotiations with neighboring countries. Bibliography 1. The European Parliament's temporary committee note on climate change February 2008 (Ref. to contract IPACLIMIC2007-106) 2. DOE (Department of Environment, M. o. E. a. F. , Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh),, Addressing Climate Change in Bangladesh National Efforts†. 2006, 3. Huq, S. , Climate Change and Bangladesh. Science, 2001(294) p. 1617. 4. Rahman, A. nd M. Alam, Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate Change in Least Developed Countries (LDCs) Bangladesh Country Case Study. IIED Working Paper, 2003(2). 5. UNDP (United National Development Programme), Country-in-focus Bangladesh. UNDP RCC web bulletin, 2007(2). 6. Huq, S. and J. M. Ayers, Critical list the 100 nations most vulnerable to climate change, in IIED Sustainable Development Opinion. 2007, International Institu te of Environment and Development London. 7. WB, An investment framework for clean energy and development a progress report in DC2006-0012. 006, World Bank Washington DC. 8. Climate Change Cell, Who is doing What in Bangladesh Report on the First Meeting. 2006, Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme, Government of Bangladesh 9. Agrawala S, et al. , Development and Climate Change in Bangladesh Focus on Coastal Flooding and the Sundarbans 2003, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 10. IPCC, Summary for Policymakers, in Climate Change 2007 Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, et al. , Editors. 2007, Cambridge University Press Cambridge. p. 1000 26. Bangladesh Department of Environment, D. Ongoing Projects. [cited 2008 11. 01. 2008]; Available from httpwww. doe-bd. orgprojects. html. 12. Agrawala, S. , et al. , Development and Cl imate Change in Bangladesh Focus on Coastal Flooding and the Sundarbans. 2003, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 13. UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). [cited 22012008]; Available from httpunfccc. intparties_and_observersitems2704. php.